Conservation and restoration of peatlands and wetlands in taiga and tundra

Land-based measures

Wetlands in Latvia - The Great Kemeri Bog

Wetlands and peatlands play important roles in global carbon cycles. Wetlands are areas that are seasonally covered by water. Globally mangroves are often the main topic of focus when it comes to wetlands (IPCC AR6 WG3, 2022, 7.4.2.8). In the Arctic and Northern regions, peatlands are important wetland elements, and will be the focus of what follows. Such peatlands are very carbon rich and store carbon in biomass below and above ground and in soil carbon. Although they only make up 3% of the Earth’s surface, peatlands store up to 21% of terrestrial carbon, and damaged peatlands contribute close to 5% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Leifeld et al. 2019). Peatland drainage between 1850 and 2015 has globally already released 80 Gt CO2-eq, and this figure may climb to 250 Gt CO2-eq by 2100 (Leifeld et al. 2019).

Compared to the global state of such areas, Arctic and Northern wetlands and peatlands remain relatively intact (UNEP 2021), and only around 2% of boreal peatlands are currently converted into croplands (Leifeld and Menichetti 2018). However, increasing attention is being paid to the importance of restoring destroyed areas, which make up 78% of total global peatlands, and preserving endangered ones, especially in light of the effects of climate change on such ecosystems. The Resilience and Management of Arctic Wetlands notes (CAFF 2021) therefore highlight the need for increased wetlands resilience to protect against future damage.

When it comes to enhancing or mitigating climate effects of wetlands and peatlands, this can be separated into the protection of existing-, and restoration of damaged or disappeared areas. Protecting and restoration can be done in multiple ways and is case dependent in the required approach, although most would be related to water provision (rewetting). The IPCC AR6 WG3 (2022) report likens peatland restoration to deforestation in that its conservation can be done by controlling the drivers such as 'commercial and subsistence agriculture, mining, urban expansion', or management or governance improvement.

Technological Readiness Level (TRL)

High 3

The technologies and methods to protect and restore wetlands and peatlands already exist, and the IPCC AR6 WG3 assigns it a TRL of 8/9.

Technological Readiness Level (TRL)

A technology with a TRL of 7-9: TRL 7 – prototype demonstrated; TRL 8 – system complete; TRL 9 – system proven

Scalability

Medium 2

In its spatial extent, this measure is necessarily limited by definition, and could be even smaller due to the effects of climate change like sea level rise and temperature increases, which limit previously occupied territory. However, Roe et al (2019) show that the carbon mitigation potential of protection and restoration is the highest of all suggested natural land based measures.

Scalability

Physically somewhat scalable; linear efficiency

Timeliness for near-future effects

High 3

The UNEP report on peatlands (2021) reads that 'Peatlands can be part of an effective climate change mitigation strategy’, and that they ‘could help countries meet Nationally Determined Contributions to global climate action.' Goldstein et al (2020) consider Peatlands and marshes to be 'irrecoverable carbon' ecosystems that would not be able to recover 'on timescales relevant to avoiding dangerous climate impacts', and these measures are therefore most urgent to prevent near future effects.

Timeliness for near-future effects

Implemented in time to make a significant difference

Northern + Arctic potential

Medium 2

Boreal and subarctic peatlands make up 78% of total global peatlands. These areas remain largely intact, and are less vulnerable than peatland areas in other areas such as the tropics (Goldstein et al. 2020). Protection and preservation would therefore be especially important (Strack et al, 2022). However, the IPCC AR6 WG3 notes that restoration would still be important, as it would bring significant ecological and socio-economical side-benefits. The report furthermore clarifies that global warming is the biggest threat to northern peatlands as almost half of all stocks north of 23° latitude cover permafrost, the thaw of which also endangers the peatlands on top. However, large uncertainties about the future development of this process makes it difficult to estimate the magnitude of potential emissions.

Northern + Arctic potential

Statistically detectable impacts in the Arctic above the global average; no difference between deploying the solution here or elsewhere

Global potential

Medium 2

The UNEP report on peatlands (2021) writes that 'Peatlands can be part of an effective [global] climate change mitigation strategy’. IPCC ar6 wg3 states even clearer that 'Restoration and rewetting of almost all drained peatlands is needed by 2050 to meet 1.5°C–2°C pathways (2022, p785).///There are however significant differences in carbon mitigation potential estimates, for example around increased releases of methane and permanence in light of increased droughts and fires (Günther et al. 2020). More research is therefore direly needed (Monteverde et al, 2022).///Strack et al (2022) note that their literature review showed that all peatland solutions could have a global potential of 1.1 to 2.6 Gt CO2e year−1 in 2030. Leifeld and Menichetti (2018) find that peatland restoration could globally reduce the emissions of 1.91 Gt CO2-eq, and note that this would require far less land nitrogen than an equivalent effect from an increase in carbon sequestration in agricultural soils (See carbon capture in soils). The IPCC Ar6 wg3 provides a slightly lower median estimate for restoration of 0.79 GtCO2-eq yr–1, and gives medium confidence that Peatland protection can mitigate 0.86 GtCO2-eq yr–1.

Global potential

Statistically detectable impacts

Cost - benefit

Medium 2

The IPCC Ar6 wg3 notes that there is insufficient data on the cost of peatland restoration to give an accurate estimate. However, the UNEP (2021) report gives a rather extensive cost-benefit analysis. The cost of peatland restoration can be very high, as a global effort to rewet ‘40% of drained peatlands by 2050’ would mean a rise in investments from ‘US$19 billion annually to US$31 billion by 2030, to US$39 billion by 2040, and then in excess of US$46 billion by 2050.’ Yet, they also note that peatlands provide numerous benefits, including economical, and that the price for restoration will only rise in the future.

There will be significant difference between costs of individual projects, with Roe et al. (2021) noting that 0.2 GtCO2-eq yr–1 could already be mitigated for up to USD100 tCO2 –1.

Cost - benefit

Significant investment costs needed, but still much cheaper than the avoided damage costs (e.g., 30%).

Environmental risks

Low 3

IPCC AR6 WG3 note that there is a risk of reversal of peatland restoration under increased warming and forest fires. However, there is general agreement that protection and restoration of wetlands and peatlands will provide many ecological benefits (IPCC AR6 wg3, 2022).

Environmental risks

Very limited, site-specific effects restricted to the solution deployment location only

Community impacts

Beneficial 3

CAFF (2021) highlights the specific importance of wetlands for indigenous peoples in Northern regions. Apart from positive ecological and environmental effects, protection and restoration of wetlands and peatlands can, according to the IPCC AR6 wg3 report, lead to improvements in local economies and likelihood. Such measures could, however, be in competition with other means of subsistence. Martino et al (2022) also notes that there could be different preferences in extent of restoration strategies, with some sections of society preferring “less wild” states of natural restoration.

Community impacts

Significant benefits to communities

Ease of reversibility

Medium 2

As noted above, it has to be made sure that protected or restored ecosystems are viable in light of changes brought about by climate change.

Ease of reversibility

Possible with significant investment

Risk of termination shock

Low 3

Risk of termination shock

Low or insignificant termination shock or damage

Legality/governance

High 3

UNEP (2021) and Monteverde et al (2022) both note that there needs to be more coordination between government levels and international governance initiatives when it comes to peatland preservation. Seifollahi-Aghmiuni et al (2019) literature review equally highlights key gaps in wetland management plans. Apart from highlighting similar policy inconsistencies in wetland management efforts, CAFF (2021) specifically also urges for improvements in ecosystem service rapportation to international organizations, as this could encourage protection and restoration projects.

Legality/governance

Currently legal to deploy, with governance structures in place to facilitate it and/or financial incentives to develop it

Scientific/media attention

High 3

There is increasing interest in the protection and restoration of wetlands and peatlands. Apart from numerous researcher projects at various institutes, the Arctic Council’s Resilience and Management of Arctic Wetlands project (sei.org/projects-and-tools/projects/resilience-and-management-of-arctic-wetlands/ and https://caff.is/wetland), in collaboration with the Stockholm Environment Institute, is the main example in the Arctic and Northern regions.

Scientific/media attention

Numerous scientific papers with substantial funding and ongoing research groups; significant media attention and "hype"; many companies exploring commercialization options

References

CAFF (2021). Scoping for Resilience and Management of Arctic Wetlands: Key Findings and Recommendations. Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna International Secretariat: Akureyri, Iceland. ISBN 978-9935-431-97-4. Available at: https://www.sei.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/findings-reccomendations-resilience-and-management-of-arctic-wetlands-2021.pdf. [Accessed 19 July 2024]

Goldstein, A., Turner, W. R., Spawn, S. A., Anderson-Teixeira, K. J., Cook-Patton, S., Fargione, J., ... & Hole, D. G. (2020). Protecting irrecoverable carbon in Earth’s ecosystems. Nature Climate Change, 10(4), 287-295. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-020-0738-8

Leifeld, J., & Menichetti, L. (2018). The underappreciated potential of peatlands in global climate change mitigation strategies. Nature communications, 9(1), 1071. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03406-6

Leifeld, J., Wüst-Galley, C. & Page, S. (2019). Intact and managed peatland soils as a source and sink of GHGs from 1850 to 2100. Nat. Clim. Change 9, 945–947. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0615-5

Martino, S., Kenter, J. O., Albers, N., Whittingham, M. J., Young, D. M., Pearce-Higgins, J. W., ... & Reed, M. S. (2022). Trade-offs between the natural environment and recreational infrastructure: A case study about peatlands under different management scenarios. Land Use Policy, 123, 106401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106401

Monteverde, S., Healy, M. G., O'Leary, D., Daly, E., & Callery, O. (2022). Management and rehabilitation of peatlands: The role of water chemistry, hydrology, policy, and emerging monitoring methods to ensure informed decision making. Ecological Informatics, 101638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2022.101638

Seifollahi-Aghmiuni, S., Kalantari, Z., Land, M., & Destouni, G. (2019). Change drivers and impacts in Arctic wetland landscapes—Literature review and gap analysis. Water, 11(4), 722. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11040722

Strack, M., Davidson, S. J., Hirano, T., & Dunn, C. (2022). The Potential of Peatlands as Nature-Based Climate Solutions. Current Climate Change Reports, 8(3), 71-82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40641-022-00183-9

United Nations Environment Programme (2021). Economics of Peatlands Conservation, Restoration, and Sustainable Management - A Policy Report for the Global Peatlands Initiative. Edward B. Barbier, Joanne C. Burgess. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi. Available at: https://www.unep.org/resources/report/economics-peatlands-conservation-restoration-and-sustainable-management [Accessed 19 July 2024]

Related ideas

Land-based measures

Afforestation, reforestation and forest management

Although the rate of deforestation has slowed over the last few decades, the world is still losing forest cover (FAO 2020). Adequate management, protection, and restoration of existing forests, and the planting of unforested areas, play a crucial role in climate mitigation scenarios (IPCC AR6 WG3), and many countries now include forests in their climate mitigation targets (NDCs).The Northern and Arctic regions are essential in this endeavor since they are home to large swaths of boreal forests that make up 27% of total global forest area (FAO 2020).

Sea ice & icebergs

Iceberg management

With rising Arctic temperatures, there have been major changes in iceberg production rates from marine terminating glaciers. These icebergs drift into warmer sea waters where they will slowly melt.

Blueberries (Vaccinium myrtillus) as part of the vegetation 5 years after forest fire, Mykland, Aust Agder, Norway

Land-based measures

Rewilding

Large areas of the Northern and Arctic regions consist of permafrost, almost permanently frozen soil. As global temperatures rise, these permafrost areas are thawing at an ever faster rate. This thawing leads to massive amounts of GHGs being released into the atmosphere, either as CO2 or CH4 in generally dry or wet areas. Because methane is a very potent GHG, the thawing of the permafrost is considered a major tipping point in the climatic system. Permafrost preservation is of the utmost importance because Arctic terrestrial regions alone hold up to 1500 Pg C (Schuur et al. 2015), and although there is large uncertainty about the total amount of emissions from permafrost (Miner et al. 2022), especially when it comes to nonlinear abrupt thawing (Turetsky et al. 2020), significant amounts of carbon release is to be expected as the Northern regions warm.

Ice sheets and glaciers

Pumping water onto ice sheets

One of the potentially most catastrophic effects of contemporary global warming would be the dramatic increase in sea levels as a result of the melting Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets. Even if all current emissions were immediately stopped, sea level rise could still occur because of locked-in warming (ICCI 2022).

Permafrost patterns of tundra soil, Northeast Greenland National Park

Land-based measures

Stabilizing permafrost by covering it

Large areas of the Northern and Arctic regions consist of permafrost, almost permanently frozen soil. As global temperatures rise, these permafrost areas are thawing at an ever faster rate. This thawing leads to massive amounts of GHGs being released into the atmosphere, as carbon stored in the permafrost is converted into methane by bacteria. Because methane is a very potent GHG, the thawing of the permafrost is considered a major tipping point in the climatic system. Permafrost preservation is of the utmost importance because Arctic terrestrial regions alone hold up to 1500 Pg C (Schuur et al. 2015), and although there is large uncertainty about the total amount of emissions from permafrost (Miner et al. 2022), especially when it comes to nonlinear abrupt thawing (Turetsky et al. 2020), significant amounts of carbon release is to be expected as the Northern regions warm.

Oceans & marine

Ocean fertilization

The oceans are the largest carbon sink for atmospheric carbon, and have taken up over 30% of anthropogenic emissions. Carbon uptake occurs abiotically through processes like ocean-atmosphere interaction and weathering processes, and biotically, mainly through carbon consuming photosynthesising organisms.

Nuclear icebreaker "Taymyr" operating in sea ice North of Dickson, Taymyr, Russia

Sea ice & icebergs

Sea ice breakup in winter

Sea ice can be an effective insulator between colder winter air and the warmer ocean below, thereby reducing the potential dissipation of heat into space.

Industry

Enhanced weathering (on land)

The concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere will have to be stabilized or lowered to mitigate or even reverse current global warming. To achieve this, current GHG emissions need to be reduced. Such mitigation strategies will however take time to deploy, and some emission sources will be difficult to mitigate. Moreover, since current atmospheric levels are already having a major warming effect, negative emission or Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) measures that reduce the amount of GHGs in the atmosphere are an active topic of research.