Artificial glaciers

Ice sheets and glaciers

Melting glacier ice, Alpefjord, Northeast Greenland National Park

Up to 50% of the world’s glaciers are predicted to disappear this century, with many more at risk if emission reduction targets are not met (Rounce et al. 2023). Furthermore, the melting of mountain glaciers impacts the rates and seasonality of meltwater abundance and scarcity.

Several high mountain communities around the world have a long history of building barriers and other constructions that trap or hold meltwater by refreezing it (Nüsser et al. 2019b). Nüsser et al (2019a) distinguish three different kinds of artificial glaciers in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya area. The most famous of these is the “ice stupa” which was developed in Ladakh (The Ice Stupa Project n.d.) and is being studied in the European Alps (Glaciers Alive n.d.). As the name suggests, ice stupas take the form of the Buddhist religious structures and are formed during winter by letting layers of water freeze over a previously constructed frame. The water used in this process is glacial meltwater that is deviated and sprayed over the frame by the force of gravity alone, without any extra energy requirements. The structure then slowly melts as temperatures rise, thereby providing a temporary but steady source of water for local communities. Artificial glaciers have also been built for cooling purposes, most famously in a large-scale project in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia (Watts 2011).

Technological Readiness Level (TRL)

High 3

There are several different kinds of artificial glaciers already in use, with experiments ongoing to improve upon the ice stupas (see icestupa.org).

Technological Readiness Level (TRL)

A technology with a TRL of 7-9: TRL 7 – prototype demonstrated; TRL 8 – system complete; TRL 9 – system proven

Scalability

Low 1

Experiments in the European Alps found that their ice stupas were far lower than the ones built by their peers in the Indian context due to geophysical factors related to humidity and air temperature (Nüsser et al, 2019a; Oerlemans et al, 2021), and it seems that Ice stupa construction is most feasible in dry mountain areas (Balasubramanian et al, 2022). So far, artificial glaciers have been relatively small-scale, and dependent on the time and energy of many local people to construct them, which likely means they are not easily scalable in their current form. Artificial glaciers are moreover dependent on the availability of water, and are therefore limited to specific areas. Although global warming will temporarily produce an increase in melt water, at some point many glaciers will have largely disappeared, and no more meltwater will be available for artificial glaciers.

Scalability

Physically unable to scale; sub-linear/logarithmic efficiency of scalability

Timeliness for near-future effects

High 3

Many of these measures are already used.

Timeliness for near-future effects

Implemented in time to make a significant difference

Northern + Arctic potential

Low 1

Although Clouse (2014) describes artificial glaciers as a 'low-tech form of geoengineering', they can best be seen as adaptation measures. These might to a limited degree be able to reduce problems around water availability in areas that rely on glacial melt water, but will not significantly mitigate climate change or its wider effects (Nüsser et al, 2019a). The low population density and different freshwater context of the Arctic and Northern regions will make such measures far less effective there than in the high mountain regions like the Himalaya-Hindu Kush.

Northern + Arctic potential

No noticeable extra positive effect beyond the global average; technology is unsuited to the Arctic

Global potential

Low 1

These would be localized structures that will likely not have a major effect beyond the very localized scale.

Global potential

Insignificant to be detected at a global scale

Cost - benefit

Medium 2

Whereas the structure of artificial glaciers is mainly used with limited local materials, often without significant extra energy input, Nüsser et al (2019a) note that ice stupas require a lot of maintenance, investment, and construction labor. Apart from these significant costs to local communities, they furthermore state that ice stupas can only store limited amounts of water.

Cost - benefit

Significant investment costs needed, but still much cheaper than the avoided damage costs (e.g., 30%).

Environmental risks

Low 3

Most artificial glaciers would only store or redirect melt water, and would therefore have limited environmental effects. However, ice stupas divert water away from rivers, and could thereby negatively affect downstream ecosystems and communities (Nüsser et al, 2019a).

Environmental risks

Very limited, site-specific effects restricted to the solution deployment location only

Community impacts

Beneficial 3

The ice stupas are generally lauded as praiseworthy examples of local grassroots climate action that build on traditional local and religious knowledge and benefit local communities (Clouse, 2016).

Community impacts

Significant benefits to communities

Ease of reversibility

Easy 3

In their present form, artificial glaciers are very easily removed if needed.

Ease of reversibility

Easily reversible naturally

Risk of termination shock

Low 3

Risk of termination shock

Low or insignificant termination shock or damage

Legality/governance

High 3

There are already many such projects, and they would likely only fall under local or national governance and legal systems.

Legality/governance

Currently legal to deploy, with governance structures in place to facilitate it and/or financial incentives to develop it

Scientific/media attention

High 3

There have been several social and natural science studies on artificial glaciers, including on their potential role outside of the Himalaya. The ice stupas have been especially broadly covered in public media. Ladakhi engineer Sonam Wangchuk for example received a Rolex Awards for his work on and design of the ice stupa.

Scientific/media attention

Numerous scientific papers with substantial funding and ongoing research groups; significant media attention and "hype"; many companies exploring commercialization options

References

Balasubramanian, S., Hoelzle, M., Lehning, M., Bolibar, J., Wangchuk, S., Oerlemans, J., & Keller, F. (2022). Influence of meteorological conditions on artificial ice reservoir (Icestupa) evolution. Frontiers in Earth Science, 9, 1409. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.771342

Clouse, C. (2014). Learning from artificial glaciers in the Himalaya: Design for climate change through low-tech infrastructural devices. Journal of Landscape Architecture, 9(3), 6-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/18626033.2014.968411

Clouse, C. (2016). Frozen landscapes: climate-adaptive design interventions in Ladakh and Zanskar. Landscape Research, 41(8), 821-837. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2016.1172559

Glaciers Alive. n.d. Projects. https://glaciersalive.ch/en/projekte/ [Accessed 8 July 2024]

The Ice Stupa Project. n.d. Artificial Glaciers of Ladakh. http://www.icestupa.org/ [Accessed 8 July 2024].

Nüsser, Marcus, et al. 2019a. Socio-hydrology of “artificial glaciers” in Ladakh, India: assessing adaptive strategies in a changing cryosphere. Regional Environmental Change 19: 1327-1337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1372-0

Nüsser, M., Dame, J., Parveen, S., Kraus, B., Baghel, R., & Schmidt, S. (2019b). Cryosphere-fed irrigation networks in the northwestern Himalaya: Precarious livelihoods and adaptation strategies under the impact of climate change. Mountain Research and Development, 39(2), R1-R11. https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-18-00072.1

Oerlemans, J., Balasubramanian, S., Clavuot, C., & Keller, F. (2021). Brief communication: Growth and decay of an ice stupa in alpine conditions–a simple model driven by energy-flux observations over a glacier surface. The Cryosphere, 15(6), 3007-3012. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3007-2021

Watts, J. (15 November 2011), Mongolia bids to keep city cool with 'ice shield' experiment, The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/nov/15/mongolia-ice-shield-geoengineering

Related ideas

Industry

Radiative covering and building technologies/ Passive daytime radiative cooling

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Nuclear icebreaker "Taymyr" operating in sea ice North of Dickson, Taymyr, Russia

Sea ice & icebergs

Sea ice breakup in winter

Sea ice can be an effective insulator between colder winter air and the warmer ocean below, thereby reducing the potential dissipation of heat into space.

Industry

Enhanced weathering (on land)

The concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere will have to be stabilized or lowered to mitigate or even reverse current global warming. To achieve this, current GHG emissions need to be reduced. Such mitigation strategies will however take time to deploy, and some emission sources will be difficult to mitigate. Moreover, since current atmospheric levels are already having a major warming effect, negative emission or Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) measures that reduce the amount of GHGs in the atmosphere are an active topic of research.

Land-based measures

Afforestation, reforestation and forest management

Although the rate of deforestation has slowed over the last few decades, the world is still losing forest cover (FAO 2020). Adequate management, protection, and restoration of existing forests, and the planting of unforested areas, play a crucial role in climate mitigation scenarios (IPCC AR6 WG3), and many countries now include forests in their climate mitigation targets (NDCs).The Northern and Arctic regions are essential in this endeavor since they are home to large swaths of boreal forests that make up 27% of total global forest area (FAO 2020).

Coastal Archipelago Park of the South Coast ("Sørlandet") of Norway, colors at the shoreline (1)

Oceans & marine

Artificial downwelling

Oceans play an important role in global heat transfer and carbon storage processes. As global temperatures and atmospheric carbon levels rise, some have suggested artificially modifying the vertical movement of water to enhance these processes.

Clouds over peaks in Uummannaq, Greenland

Atmosphere / solar radiation

Arctic winter high-latitude seasonal stratospheric aerosol injection

GHG emissions reductions and future negative emissions are the only sustainable solutions to stabilize or even reverse global warming as they counter the cause of the problem. However, the required actions will likely take time to materialize, and inertia in the climate system and locked-in warming already ensures major changes in global temperatures and the nearing of several tipping points. Solar radiation management (SRM) techniques seek to reduce global temperatures by reflecting incoming solar radiation. They would thereby not fix the underlying issue of the warming effects of GHGs but are, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Review on Solar Radiation Modification Research (2023), 'the only known approach that could be used to cool the Earth within a few years'.

Land-based measures

Agricultural soil management

Terrestrial carbon can be stored in biomass above or below the ground, and in soils themselves. Soil organic matter can form differently, and have different amounts of plant and microbial components depending on the availability of water (Cotrufo and Lavallee, 2022). The large amounts of the Earth that have been brought under cultivation over the past 12.000 years have significantly degraded soil carbon levels, and have released some 110 billion metric tons of carbon (Sanderman et al. 2017). Soil security and health is increasingly being recognised as essential for planetary health (Kopittke et al. (2022).

Industry

Built-environment albedo enhancement (white roofs etc.)

An increase in GHGs in the atmosphere leads to a greater amount of outgoing infrared radiation from the earth being retained. There are several SRM ideas that seek to compensate for this by reflecting more radiation back to space.