Artificial glaciers

Ice sheets and glaciers

Melting glacier ice, Alpefjord, Northeast Greenland National Park

Up to 50% of the world’s glaciers are predicted to disappear this century, with many more at risk if emission reduction targets are not met (Rounce et al. 2023). Furthermore, the melting of mountain glaciers impacts the rates and seasonality of meltwater abundance and scarcity.

Several high mountain communities around the world have a long history of building barriers and other constructions that trap or hold meltwater by refreezing it (Nüsser et al. 2019b). Nüsser et al (2019a) distinguish three different kinds of artificial glaciers in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya area. The most famous of these is the “ice stupa” which was developed in Ladakh (The Ice Stupa Project n.d.) and is being studied in the European Alps (Glaciers Alive n.d.). As the name suggests, ice stupas take the form of the Buddhist religious structures and are formed during winter by letting layers of water freeze over a previously constructed frame. The water used in this process is glacial meltwater that is deviated and sprayed over the frame by the force of gravity alone, without any extra energy requirements. The structure then slowly melts as temperatures rise, thereby providing a temporary but steady source of water for local communities. Artificial glaciers have also been built for cooling purposes, most famously in a large-scale project in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia (Watts 2011).

Technological Readiness Level (TRL)

High 3

There are several different kinds of artificial glaciers already in use, with experiments ongoing to improve upon the ice stupas (see icestupa.org).

Technological Readiness Level (TRL)

A technology with a TRL of 7-9: TRL 7 – prototype demonstrated; TRL 8 – system complete; TRL 9 – system proven

Scalability

Low 1

Experiments in the European Alps found that their ice stupas were far lower than the ones built by their peers in the Indian context due to geophysical factors related to humidity and air temperature (Nüsser et al, 2019a; Oerlemans et al, 2021), and it seems that Ice stupa construction is most feasible in dry mountain areas (Balasubramanian et al, 2022). So far, artificial glaciers have been relatively small-scale, and dependent on the time and energy of many local people to construct them, which likely means they are not easily scalable in their current form. Artificial glaciers are moreover dependent on the availability of water, and are therefore limited to specific areas. Although global warming will temporarily produce an increase in melt water, at some point many glaciers will have largely disappeared, and no more meltwater will be available for artificial glaciers.

Scalability

Physically unable to scale; sub-linear/logarithmic efficiency of scalability

Timeliness for near-future effects

High 3

Many of these measures are already used.

Timeliness for near-future effects

Implemented in time to make a significant difference

Northern + Arctic potential

Low 1

Although Clouse (2014) describes artificial glaciers as a 'low-tech form of geoengineering', they can best be seen as adaptation measures. These might to a limited degree be able to reduce problems around water availability in areas that rely on glacial melt water, but will not significantly mitigate climate change or its wider effects (Nüsser et al, 2019a). The low population density and different freshwater context of the Arctic and Northern regions will make such measures far less effective there than in the high mountain regions like the Himalaya-Hindu Kush.

Northern + Arctic potential

No noticeable extra positive effect beyond the global average; technology is unsuited to the Arctic

Global potential

Low 1

These would be localized structures that will likely not have a major effect beyond the very localized scale.

Global potential

Insignificant to be detected at a global scale

Cost - benefit

Medium 2

Whereas the structure of artificial glaciers is mainly used with limited local materials, often without significant extra energy input, Nüsser et al (2019a) note that ice stupas require a lot of maintenance, investment, and construction labor. Apart from these significant costs to local communities, they furthermore state that ice stupas can only store limited amounts of water.

Cost - benefit

Significant investment costs needed, but still much cheaper than the avoided damage costs (e.g., 30%).

Environmental risks

Low 3

Most artificial glaciers would only store or redirect melt water, and would therefore have limited environmental effects. However, ice stupas divert water away from rivers, and could thereby negatively affect downstream ecosystems and communities (Nüsser et al, 2019a).

Environmental risks

Very limited, site-specific effects restricted to the solution deployment location only

Community impacts

Beneficial 3

The ice stupas are generally lauded as praiseworthy examples of local grassroots climate action that build on traditional local and religious knowledge and benefit local communities (Clouse, 2016).

Community impacts

Significant benefits to communities

Ease of reversibility

Easy 3

In their present form, artificial glaciers are very easily removed if needed.

Ease of reversibility

Easily reversible naturally

Risk of termination shock

Low 3

Risk of termination shock

Low or insignificant termination shock or damage

Legality/governance

High 3

There are already many such projects, and they would likely only fall under local or national governance and legal systems.

Legality/governance

Currently legal to deploy, with governance structures in place to facilitate it and/or financial incentives to develop it

Scientific/media attention

High 3

There have been several social and natural science studies on artificial glaciers, including on their potential role outside of the Himalaya. The ice stupas have been especially broadly covered in public media. Ladakhi engineer Sonam Wangchuk for example received a Rolex Awards for his work on and design of the ice stupa.

Scientific/media attention

Numerous scientific papers with substantial funding and ongoing research groups; significant media attention and "hype"; many companies exploring commercialization options

References

Balasubramanian, S., Hoelzle, M., Lehning, M., Bolibar, J., Wangchuk, S., Oerlemans, J., & Keller, F. (2022). Influence of meteorological conditions on artificial ice reservoir (Icestupa) evolution. Frontiers in Earth Science, 9, 1409. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.771342

Clouse, C. (2014). Learning from artificial glaciers in the Himalaya: Design for climate change through low-tech infrastructural devices. Journal of Landscape Architecture, 9(3), 6-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/18626033.2014.968411

Clouse, C. (2016). Frozen landscapes: climate-adaptive design interventions in Ladakh and Zanskar. Landscape Research, 41(8), 821-837. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2016.1172559

Glaciers Alive. n.d. Projects. https://glaciersalive.ch/en/projekte/ [Accessed 8 July 2024]

The Ice Stupa Project. n.d. Artificial Glaciers of Ladakh. http://www.icestupa.org/ [Accessed 8 July 2024].

Nüsser, Marcus, et al. 2019a. Socio-hydrology of “artificial glaciers” in Ladakh, India: assessing adaptive strategies in a changing cryosphere. Regional Environmental Change 19: 1327-1337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1372-0

Nüsser, M., Dame, J., Parveen, S., Kraus, B., Baghel, R., & Schmidt, S. (2019b). Cryosphere-fed irrigation networks in the northwestern Himalaya: Precarious livelihoods and adaptation strategies under the impact of climate change. Mountain Research and Development, 39(2), R1-R11. https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-18-00072.1

Oerlemans, J., Balasubramanian, S., Clavuot, C., & Keller, F. (2021). Brief communication: Growth and decay of an ice stupa in alpine conditions–a simple model driven by energy-flux observations over a glacier surface. The Cryosphere, 15(6), 3007-3012. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-3007-2021

Watts, J. (15 November 2011), Mongolia bids to keep city cool with 'ice shield' experiment, The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/nov/15/mongolia-ice-shield-geoengineering

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